Many nations launched expeditions of exploration under their military and naval forces. Strict adherence to rank and respect for the captain and officers during expeditions was a way of maintaining order, safety, and health in an atmosphere of constant danger and uncertainty. Although some trained in the navy or merchant service as adults, many first set sail as young boys, often at 7 or 8 years of age. They gained vast experience in the workings of a sailing ship before they could officially be categorized as seamen at age 16.
The Spanish naval ranks included the Capitán or captain, the Teniente de Navio or ship’s lieutenant, and the Alférez or ensign. These men were commissioned officers who exercised power officially granted to them by their king. They had attended naval academies in Spain and South America where they received their military and navigational training. The Piloto was a pilot or mate at the upper ranks of the non-commissioned officers. Non-commissioned officers usually advanced from lower positions on the ship and received their orders from the commissioned officers.
The English were also divided by rank. The captain commanded the vessel. Officers, such as the lieutenants, were next in command. Those who didn’t hold real authority but were in training to become officers, such as the midshipman, were next in line, followed by the sailors or “seamen,” who attended to the various duties aboard ship. Unlike the army, which gained many of its officers from the upper classes, commissioned ship’s officers along with the petty or non-commissioned officers could come from the middle and even lower classes, as did the seamen. Cooks, barbers, sailmakers, gunners, blacksmiths for metalwork and weaponry, carpenters for woodworking, pursers for accounting, the ship’s surgeon, botanists, astronomers, and translators were other positions held by expedition members.
The crew was divided into “watches” or shifts of duty. Most vessels used a schedule of two watches, which would place the men on duty on alternating four-hour shifts. The larger vessels divided the crew into sections based on the fore, main, and mizzenmasts to take care of the busy work of raising and lowering the sails. Constant cleaning and repairs were the other tasks of the seamen on watch. Because most expeditions set out with two vessels, there were two full crews or four watches under the commanding captain. The second ship answered directly to its own officers and a lieutenant or captain acting under the expedition commander.
